Музей естествознания (natural history museum)

ACCUMULATING AND CLASSIFYING

A number of important institutions of European science were founded during the Renaissance, supported by rulers, nobles, universities, and municipal authorities. Alongside observatories, laboratories, and anatomy theaters came the first botanical gardens: Padua (1546) and Pisa (1547). Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), professor of philosophy, medicine, and botany at Pisa (1555–1592) and director of the botanical garden (1554–1558), was also the creator of one of the first herbaria and the inventor of botanical systematics. Cesalpino’s classificatory system was an attempt to bring natural history within the purview of scholastic philosophy, with its logical categories and formulae. This exercise in conferring scholarly prestige upon an activity hitherto largely limited to medical herbalism enshrined botany within the universities and gave it the status of a science. Up until the end of the eighteenth century and beyond, natural historical classifications, such as that invented by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708), professor of botany at the Jardin du Roi in Paris (founded 1635; since 1793, the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle), continued to draw on Cesalpino’s work. Of all the subdisciplines of natural history, botany was the first to be formalized independently and to be practiced within institutions dedicated to its pursuit. Classification demanded not only the generation of logical categories based on a philosophical system, but also the material and practical enterprise of sorting, preserving, identifying, naming, distributing and, sometimes, propagating specimens from the three kingdoms of nature, animals, plants, and minerals. Botanical specimens far outstripped other natural history specimens such as animal carcasses or mineral samples in their portability and ease of preservation. By contrast, animal classification was contested, and reliable methods of preservation did not emerge until the very end of the seventeenth century at the hands of the Dutch anatomist Frederik Ruysch (1638–1731). Minerals, with the exception of gemstones and precious metals, were less amenable to transportation or exploitation, although they were well represented in collections devoted to local natural history.

Natural history as a cumulation of objects and observations provided both factual certainty and greater knowledge of God, but it also had economic outcomes. Europe’s botanical gardens were important centers for the acquisition, propagation, and distribution of new species derived from voyages of
discovery and conquest undertaken with increasing frequency towards the eighteenth century. The potential of replicating useful plants, including coffee, potatoes, pineapples, and nutmeg, was explored throughout the early modern period, but more systematically after the formation of the first colonial botanical gardens in the late seventeenth century. Scientific participation in the proceeds of imperialist enterprises increased substantially during the eighteenth century as naturalists presented the organized pursuit of useful plants, animals, and minerals to rulers and patrons as indispensable to national wealth. Curious natural history thus coexisted with a repertoire of activities and practices—cultivation, exchange, consumption—that would transform the flora, fauna, foods and other natural resources of western Europe forever. Such an approach to natural history as a science of resources, peaking in the eighteenth century, required extensive cooperation among naturalists as well as vast financial support. A resource-oriented approach to natural history also justified the publication of local natural histories itemizing the flora, fauna, and mineral wealth of one province or state, especially in England and the German lands.

COMMERCE AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE

The distinction between private and public collections, or between curious and useful, was rarely clear-cut in botanical gardens, academies, or princely collections. Even naturalists wholly lacking institutional affiliations depended for their collecting upon the growth of European commerce and exploration. Natural history specimens ranked alongside valuable works of art from porcelain to paintings in the households of wealthy collectors and fetched nearly as much in the marketplace. The Dutch Republic was a center for fashions in the collection of natural objects, from tulips in the 1630s to shells in the 1710s. Both depended on the wide global reach of Dutch trade and colonization to supply new specimens. From a private collector’s viewpoint, there was no categorical distinction to be made between beautiful objects of nature and art; seventeenth-century collectors admired the artifice of nature in decorating flowers or butterflies in much the same way as they appreciated the artistry of antique coins or sculpture. Natural objects acquired value within the marketplace, and their meaning was often controlled by wealthy connoisseurs of the fine arts and by the merchants who sold to them. This commercialization of natural history affected even rulers. As part of his attempt to westernize Russia by founding scientific institutions, Peter the Great of Russia (ruled 1682–1725), entered into negotiations with several naturalists to buy a collection worthy of his nation, finally succeeding in purchasing that formed by the Dutch apothecary Albert Seba (1665–1736). Although institution-based naturalists called for the separation of natural history objects from other types of collectables and the formation of collections dedicated exclusively to the natural world, such goals were not systematically pursued anywhere before 1789.

As were most sciences of the period, natural history was largely a male pursuit, with women collectors, such as the German artist Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717), greatly in the minority. Because imported specimens were rare and costly, early modern collectors were usually rich. The Dutch turn toward fashions in collecting was the start of a bigger Europe-wide transformation in natural history that paralleled the growth of a middling market for books and luxury items. By the eighteenth century, natural history publications, specimen sales, and public, pay-on-entry collections proliferated. Critiques of the pursuit of luxury among the middling sort accordingly hit hard at certain versions and practitioners of natural history. Private collectors were castigated for unscholarly amassing of natural objects as a means to display their personal wealth, and rulers were exhorted to support enterprises for a useful, rather than spectacular, natural history.

The lack of formal methods for accrediting scientific expertise meant that early modern naturalists in institutions were effectively on a par with unaffiliated private collectors. In early modern Europe there were no university degrees in natural history and no formal training programs or diplomas in the natural sciences. Individuals entered posts in princely or municipal institutions through personal patronage from social superiors. Often they acquired their knowledge and skills through a sort of informal apprenticeship under renowned naturalists, by participating in botanizing journeys or at the dissecting table. To acquire renown and scientific authority as a naturalist in the early modern period was thus no easy task, involving extensive social
interaction and material manipulation, much of which has left little historical trace. If any one category of individuals had a privileged relationship with the objects of natural history, it was licensed medical practitioners. Apothecaries routinely dealt with large masses of animal, plant, and mineral material, and physicians often had a working knowledge of botany and anatomy. Thus many prominent early modern naturalists were also physicians, from Ruysch in Amsterdam to Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753) at the Royal Society in London. Right up to the mid-eighteenth century, this privileged relation between medicine and natural history persisted, and it is only from 1750 onwards that the beginnings of its unraveling can be seen in the filling of natural historical posts by non-medically trained individuals.

Экспозиции музея

Все обширные экспозиции Музея естествознания упорядочены по тематике и располагаются в четырех основных зонах: синей, зеленой, красной и оранжевой. Прежде чем начать экскурсию по этим зонам посетители музея попадают в Центральный зал, который настраивает на осмотр коллекций и сам содержит несколько интереснейших экспонатов. Как, например, гигантская копия скелета диплодока, состоящая из сотен тысяч деталей. На главной лестнице Центрального зала установлена скульптура, изображающая одного из самых прославленных мировых ученых – Чарльза Дарвина.

Синяя зона Музея естествознания предлагает посетителям познакомиться с экспозициями, в которых представлены рыбы, земноводные, динозавры и различные жители морских и океанских глубин. Многие модели доисторических животных или рептилий являются интерактивными, т.е. двигаются, устрашающе щелкают зубами или скребут когтями, рычат. За символическую плату в 1 фунт посетители музея могут сменить последовательность действий модели или увидеть что-то новое, что недоступно в «бесплатной версии». Таким нехитрым образом музей, посещение которого бесплатное, умудряется собрать за год вполне кругленькую сумму на свои нужды. В синей зоне также можно увидеть самого большого на планете млекопитающего – голубого кита, чья 30-метровая копия подвешена под потолком.

Синяя зона Музея

В зеленой зоне, как можно догадаться из названия, располагаются экспозиции, посвященные растениям, насекомым и птицам. Большой популярностью пользуется галерея с обширной коллекцией чучел, представляющих самых различных представителей мира пернатых. Среди экспонатов можно увидеть, как существующих ныне птиц (от миниатюрных колибри до огромных страусов), так и уже вымершие экземпляры. Также в зеленой зоне освещаются вопросы экологии, которые плачевно влияют на сохранение жизни на нашей планете. С помощью различных интерактивных экспонатов и информации на дисплеях посетители Музея естествознания могут больше узнать о том, какую роль суждено играть человечеству на земле и о том, как сохранить окружающую среду.

Зеленая зона музея

В красной зоне музея демонстрируются различные геологические процессы на земле, землетрясения, вулканы, а также воссозданы модели приливов и отливов. Все экспонаты, расположенные здесь, не просто зрелищные, но и позволяют прочувствовать многие процессы с помощью тактильных ощущений. Например, экспонат, симулирующий процесс землетрясения, позволяет посетителям почувствовать, как происходят подземные толчки, оценивающиеся разными баллами по шкале.В красной зоне также находятся различные экспонаты, которые иллюстрируют представление древних цивилизаций о Земле и ее происхождении. Здесь немало макетов посвящено мифам и легендам, и можно увидеть не совсем обычные экспонаты, как, например, череп Циклопа.

Замыкает череду экспозиций музея оранжевая зона, в которой располагается Сад дикой природы. Здесь посетителям представлены коллекции насекомых, а также удивительные растения-хищники, которые питаются насекомыми. Кроме экспозиций в оранжевой зоне функционирует Центр Дарвина.

Лондонский музей естествознания открыт для посещений ежегодно, кроме периода празднования Рождества (24-26 декабря). С понедельника по субботу музей принимает посетителей с 10 до 17-50, а в воскресенье – с 11 до 17-50. Посещения музея является бесплатным для всех категорий.

Collections and the Growth of Natural History

Buffon and Linnaeus, although different in perspective, each contributed to molding natural history and inspiring others. They had each relied primarily on natural history collections for their work, rather than going out into the field in search of information. The fourteen thousand species of plants and animals described by Linnaeus, and the extensive accounts of quadrupeds, birds, and minerals that comprise Buffon’s thirty-six volumes, reflected the extensive empirical base of knowledge available in private and public collections in the later half of the eighteenth century. But as impressive as the collections were compared to those of the previous century, they were just the beginning. An enormous expansion of natural history collections took place in the early nineteenth century and completely transformed them as well as natural history. Explorers, colonial officials, traveling naturalists, and commercial natural history houses had supplied collectors in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, however, a new wave of European colonial expansion began, one reflecting the vast industrial and commercial revolutions that had been taking place in western Europe. Merchants and governments increasingly sought international markets and commercial products, and with these new developments there came what must have seemed like limitless opportunities for the collection of plants, animals, and
minerals. The resulting new collections were not only larger, but they were more scientifically valuable because trained collectors in the field were instructed in what was of scientific interest. They knew how to adequately preserve specimens and how to label them with appropriate information.

Combined, the new opportunities to collect on a global scale made a new sort of natural history collection possible. Until the end of the eighteenth century, most natural history collections had been primarily amateur ones whose owners were not scientists and who did not publish anything other than the occasional catalog. The reorganization during the French Revolution of the royal garden into a national museum of natural history provided a new model and led to the establishment of the leading natural history collection in the world for many decades. The new public and semi-public museums that were inspired by the Paris museum had professional curators who were active scientists.

Not only did the nature of the collections change in the early nineteenth century, but the number of individuals involved in the study of natural history increased dramatically. In large part, this reflected the many new opportunities that became available for those interested in the subject. Not only were more museums created, with curator positions, but also private companies supplied paid positions for those willing to travel to exotic places to collect specimens. The increase in literacy and the revolution in printing created new markets for those interested in writing for the general public. As a consequence, more people came to be engaged in the study of natural history, and the subject became, overall, more rigorous and more specialized.

Although the specialization in natural history created new specialized subdisciplines, such as ornithology and entomology, the legacy of Linnaeus and Buffon continued to guide research—that is, description, classification, and the search of a general order in nature. New empirical data raised interesting new questions. The carefully collected and labeled specimens that poured into European collections showed interesting patterns of distribution of animals and plants. Fossils from local and exotic quarries led researchers to ponder the relationship of extinct forms to contemporary ones. And the immense number of specimens showed that even within a species there was an astonishingly large amount of variation. What did it all mean?

Музей естественной истории в Лондоне

Национальный музей естественной истории — это не просто пыльное кладбище костей динозавров, а целый научный институт, Храм природы, как его иногда называют.

Раньше я этого не знала и шла в музей без особого энтузиазма, но была приятно удивлена качеством и подачей экспонатов.

Кстати, у меня тогда был День Рождения и, пожалуй, именно благодаря Natural History Museum настроение у меня было поднято на целый день!

Вы уведите здесь по-настоящему увлекательный, красочный и оживлённый музей, наполненный детским смехом и удивлёнными возгласами взрослых.

Помимо 80 миллионов экспонатов музей хранит книги, научные работы, манускрипты и редкие художественные коллекции, к которым можно получить доступ в исследовательских целях. Это поразительное место, которое нужно посещать дружной семьёй.

Немного об истории музея и его архитектуре

До 1992 года музей Естественной истории назывался Британским музеем (Естественная История — B.M. (N.H.)), хотя отделился от него ещё в 1963 году.

Первые экспонаты прибыли из Британского музея в середине XVIII века: высушенные растения, скелеты животных и людей из коллекции сира Ханса Слоана.

Большая часть исчезла уже в начале XIX века — некоторые были проданы в Королевский хирургический колледж, прочие просто не смогли сохранить до нашего времени.

Чуть позднее к музею естественной истории присоединили Геологический музей. Перед зданием расположена модель активного вулкана (не самая впечатляющая и часто выходящая из строя), машина имитирующая землетрясение от Джеймса Гарднера и первая в мире компьютерная экспозиция Сокровища земли (Treasures of the Earth), где так же представлены коллекции минералов.

Позднее всех, в 2002 году, открылся центр Дарвина, где хранятся особо ценные коллекции, а так же располагаются офисы для научных работников и образовательные уголки для посетителей.

Как добраться до Natural History Museum

• Адрес:The Natural History Museum , Cromwell Road , London SW7 5BD .
• Ближайшая станция метро — South Kensington (жёлтая ветка/ Circle line).
• Расположение здания очень удобное, рядом находятся бесплатные для визита музеи Альберта и Виктории, а так же Музей Науки.

Самые любопытные экспонаты Музея Естествознания

Обидно пропустить экспонаты, про которые все говорят, поэтому ниже я привожу список жемчужин Музея естественных наук Лондона.

Diplodocus carnegii или просто Диппи

Символом Музея Естествознания является 32-метровый скелет диплодока. Он размещён в центральном зале, его довольно трудно не заметить. Это подарок шотландского американца Эндрю Карнеги от 1905 года.

Данный скелет стал символом музея, он упомянут даже в диснеевском мультфильме.

Модель синего кита

Поистине впечатляющая по своей величине модель: 25 метров в длину и 10 тонн весом. Сразу пытаешься представить себе его живьём, от чего невольно становиться страшновато. Долгое время ему просто не находилось места в музее, пока не был построен новый Китовый Зал (сейчас он называется Large Mammals Hall) в 1938 году.

Есть легенда, что во время сборки модели рабочие сделали дверцу в животе кита, чтобы по-быстрому отлучаться на перекур. Перед запечатыванием двери внутри кита оставили монеты и телефонные книжки, а может быть там и вовсе хранится временная капсула с различными посланиями.

Кальмар по имени Арчи

В центре Дарвина с 2004 года находится гигантский 8,62-метровый кальмар, нежно прозванный Арчи. В отличии от кита Арчи не искуственный макет. Он презервирован в формалиновом физрастворе и находится в подвальном помещении.

Обычно Арчи не выставляют на публику, поэтому нужно онлайн заказывать билеты на специальный тур под названием Behind-the-Scenes Spirit Collection Tour здесь. Билет стоит €12 (£10) для всех + бронирование €2.50 (£1.50) (для справки: helper, который может пройти бесплатно, это сопровождающий для человека с инвалидностью).

Кости кита, заблудившегося в Темзе

Это грустная история. В 2006 году один кит совершенно случайно забрёл в реку Темзу.

К сожалению, он не выжил, и его останки сначала сохранили для исследовательской работы, а уже позднее переместили кости в основной зал.

Динококлеа это ракушка огромной улитки, согласно одной теории срощенный туннель для червей или же копролит. Копролит это… окаменевшие фекалии древнего животного. Совершенно тошнотворное зрелище, но с 1921 года занимает гордое место в коллекции музея.

P.S. Детям лучше сказать, что это ракушка гигантской улитки.

Natural History Museum — London

Photo: Natural History Museum, London/Facebook

London’s Natural History Museum in South Kensington is something like a grand-scale hall of curiosities divided into four zones: blue (biology); green (evolution); red (geology); and orange (outdoors/hands-on). A giant blue whale skeleton stretches along the length of the Green Zone’s ceiling. In the Red Zone, you’ll also find some of the world’s rarest minerals, like a fully crystallized gold nugget found in Australia. The Blue Zone holds a collection of interesting creatures preserved in jars of spirits, as in the alcoholic variety. Luckily, outside the museum, the Orange Zone features a (living!) wildlife garden, which could help offset any guilt acquired by looking at dead critters floating in containers of booze. There’s a space area, a human evolution exhibit, and a British animalia collection. The museum also has a branch in Tring, and entry to both branches is free. Both are open every day of the year except December 24-26. The Kensington branch is open from 10:00 AM until the last admission at 5:30 PM. The Tring branch keeps slightly different hours and exhibits. Check out the museum’s website for full details.

HUMANIST NATURAL HISTORY

Sixteenth-century natural history was part of the humanist tradition of learning with its literary and artistic orientation, typified by the writings of the Dutch scholar and theologian Desiderius Erasmus (1466?–1536). The study of the natural world in the early modern period was first and foremost a philological pursuit. Authors of new publications plundered earlier manuscript and published works of natural history for descriptions, anecdotes, and proverbs concerning natural objects, including many that would today seem quite foreign to a scientific approach. The Milanese jurist Andrea Alciati’s Emblemata (1522) configured animals as literary puzzles, with an obscure image and motto that the reader could decode by means of an epigrammatic poem. Emblematic texts of natural history accumulated literary materials rather than observations: fables, emblems, proverbs, allegories,
sympathies. This emblematic tradition emphasized the symbolism of animals alongside their uses, rather than their anatomy or classification; it continued to dominate natural history until the very end of the sixteenth century, exemplified in the writings of naturalists such as the Lutheran Joachim Camerarius the Younger (1534–1598).

By the end of the sixteenth century, learned men across Europe collected natural history objects and advanced explanations for their nature, types, and transformations. Massive publication projects were often associated with collections like the famous studio of the «Bolognese Aristotle,» Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605). The great collections of individuals like Aldrovandi, the Neapolitan apothecary Ferrante Imperato (1550–1631) or the Dane Olaus Worm (1588–1654) were famous throughout Europe, visited by princes and noblemen, and documented in printed descriptions and catalogs such as the Museum Wormianum of 1655 in Leiden. Collections continued to play a central part in princely and scholarly identity, as in natural historical practice, throughout the early modern period, although the principles of their construction varied over time. In his many writings, the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626) called for the ejection of philology from natural history and for greater attention to wonders and monsters, the exotic and the rare. By the 1660s, museums were theaters of marvels, where the scholarly observer was encouraged to contemplate the philosophical issues raised by the juxtaposition of neighboring objects, which might reveal contrasts or similarities, the variety or the uniformity of nature. The wondrous natural or artificial object served as a basis for philosophical analysis, natural theology, and reflection on the role of the human observer, both as part of the natural world and as the transformer of its materials by art. Such studies always had a theological purpose as well: museums of natural history were described as «books of nature,» which the scholar could read alongside the great book, the Bible, for pious purposes. This natural theological approach was typified by the writings of the Cambridge botanist John Ray (1627–1705).